Organizational culture is fundamentally about symbolic meaning and as Essay

Organizational culture is fundamentally about symbolic meaning and as such cannot be managed. Discuss - Essay Example The key factors that have contributed to the importance of organisational culture are globalisation, extensive networks of society and dynamics of ever changing social aspects that have created a work environment that has a diverse culture worldwide (Lann, 2008). Organisational culture plays a pivotal role in allowing the organization to gain a competitive edge in its industry and also becoming successful in the business world with a huge market share. The employees are the key elements that make or break the firm as they are ones who execute the objectives and goals of the organisation. It is important for the organisations to adapt to the organisational culture as required because diversions may lead to conflict of opinion and interest in the organisation. Both the employers and employees need to work together with each other in complete harmony so that desired level of success and results can be achieved by the firm. Within the last two decades of the 20th century, the practitione rs and scholars have been approaching the firms from soft perspectives of individuals as human beings who join the corporations with particular beliefs and values. These beliefs and values play an important role towards the behaviour and attitudes of the employees in the organisation. ... t things for human beings as reflected in the Elton Mayo theory, hence organisations should ensure that they value their employees in all perspectives. Satisfied employees tend to be more productive at workplace and they also tend to respect their organisational culture. According to Gareth Morgan, cited by Ravasi and Schultz (2006), the cultural perspective is one of the interesting and possible metaphors that can be used to understand the functioning and operations of an organisation. The main areas that are focused by the researchers following this perspective are interpreting the ways people do their thinking so that their feeling and actions can be easily conceptualised by the set of values that have been encompassed in the broader perception of culture (Sun, 2008). The thought process of an individual impacts the way job roles are handled at work and also impacts the way employees perceive things at workplace. The perception of employees are also dependent upon their treatment in the organisation by the supervisors and peers. This cultural perspective has both limitations and strengths and has made valuable contributions in the field of organisational research. During the studies by many researchers, one of the primary virtues of cultural metaphor was identified that directed the attention towards the significance of symbolic interaction in the organisation. Before the development of symbolic-interpretive perspective, the major emphasis was on the functionalist perspective which stated that culture is an integral part of the organisation that is defined by the management (Bako, 2010). The symbolic-interpretive perspective was valued by the researchers because it allowed them to study how the organisations have strong roots in their shared systems of meaning. It

Mobile Computing and Social Networks Term Paper

Mobile Computing and Social Networks - Term Paper Example Mobile computing and social networks have increasingly become popular around the world. There are thousands of iPhone Apps, iPad Apps, and Android Apps that have been developed to perform a myriad of tasks and processes. These applications use mobile and web-based technologies majorly in turning communication into interactive communications and dialogue(s) among organizations, individuals, and communities around the world (Hinchcliffe et al, 2012). The fact that mobile computing and social networks have witnessed exponential growth within a very short period of time compared to other communication and business tools in the history of human beings is nearly incontestable (Rainie and Wellman, 2012). This fact is evidenced by the statistics indicating that while it took about 13 years for television to attract close to 50 million viewers and approximately 38 years for radio to attract nearly 50 million listeners, internet technology only took about 4 years only for to attract over 50 mi llion participants. Social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter much shorter time; about one and a half years to attract the same number of participants (Hinchcliffe et al, 2012). Mobile computing has witnessed a more robust growth in recent years. While initially most of the mobile applications were games that were intended for playing on mobile devices, they have gained popularity as businesses ponder whether some of their business process applications running on desktop platform and the Web can be redesigned to run on mobile devices that run on desktop platforms and the Web could be redesigned to run on mobile devices (Rainie and Wellman, 2012). In order to have a better understanding of mobile computing and social networks, this paper will discuss mobile-based applications and their various aspects relating to access and processing of data. The first aspect to address is in regard to the effectiveness and efficiency mobile-based applications provide to capture geo-locat ion data and customer data, and quickly upload to a processing server without users having to use a desktop system. Presently, there are numerous smartphones and iPhones that use applications and specific processes relating to mobile devices (Kumar and Rahman, 2012). Considering the advancements that have been made in mobile computing, as well as in regard to social networks, many companies around the world are making preparation for the use of mobile-based applications using tools that can capture geo-location data and customer data. Apple iPhone and Android smartphone platforms are the most used currently for this purpose and this has seen the huge expansion of their market. Available evidence indicates that these applications have been successful in capturing geo-location data; they have been successful in tracking driving behaviors, providing unbiased feedback during driving, and measuring acceleration among others (Dye, 2011).

Minority Essay Example for Free

Minority Essay I am a young 23 year old Hispanic girl, I am not married nor do I have kids. I am working towards my degree, live on my own, I have a decent Job, and do not depend on my parents. But as a minority I face the challenge of negative labels in many places I go. I especially deal with them when I am with my 4 nieces and nephews (age range from 6 months-10 years old) in public places. People think I am a typical Latina which includes: being a dropout with no education, four kids (that may be from at least 2 different fathers), no Job, no goals in life, etc. The biggest problem I have faced eing a minority is, being able to overcome negative stereotypes and being able to outweigh statistics. According to statistics from cdc. gov, in 2010, 23. 2% of elementary and high school students were Hispanic, but only 6. 2% of college students were Hispanic. Meaning that Hispanics are not going to college after high-school. This research paper will investigate how people treat me when I am alone and when I am with my four nieces nephews, and how the differences reflect among gender, race, and age. II. Method I utilized a type of participant observation known as complete observation. Playing he role of a complete observer, I observed and recorded the positive and negative, acknowledgement towards me with and without kids, I also observed and recorded the different looks and conversations I was able to get with and without the kids, based on three criteria: gender, race, age. The Setting I selected a very busy mall called NorthPark Center Mall, located in North Dallas off of Central Expressway. I chose this mall for several reasons. First, it is an easy place to view different types of genders, race and age groups. Second, it has several stores that I am able to go into and quickly be able to note the differences among who nters the stores according to gender, race, and age. Lastly, I chose this particular mall because it is huge, containing over 200 stores restaurants, which helped to maximize my potential for observation. Observation Strategy To avoid looking obvious, I observed no longer than 20 minutes anywhere from one central benches located in different areas of the mall, different types of stores which included: Forever 21, Nordstrom, Bebe, Disney Store, Loft, and LEGO, and restaurants inside the mall that included: Luna de Noche Tex-Mex Grill, Hibachi-San, and Maggiands Little Italy, I also observed when walking inside the mall from 2 different ntrances which were from Nordstrom Macys. Moving around from place to place was the only way I could observe discreetly and accurately given the amount of information I had to record for all the individuals. Other ways I considered observing included dressing very poorly maybe with ripped shirt and shorts and my nephews not groomed, not clean, and also the total opposite, also trying to make as much eye contact with someone as much as possible, facial expressions, different conversations as people passed by me in the different entrances, benches, restaurants, ; stores I isited. These strategies were all possible, because doing so allowed me to record valuable information and observe from the different locations and able to note the differences among gender, race, and age. I observed on five different days Monday at 7pm (alone), Wednesday at 5pm (witn my nephews ; nieces), Friday at Oam (alone), Saturday at 5pm (with nephews and nieces) and Sunday at 12pm. I chose to observe on two weekdays and on the weekend and also at different types to be able to diversify my research which allowed me to make a more complete investigation. Therefore, I observed on 3 different weekdays Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, which according to a mall cop those are days that an older crowd tend to visit. I also chose the weekend because thats when a more diverse population tends to go and do their shopping. However, according to my own observations it varies among the time, what age groups go since NorthPark is so huge it is very diverse at ALL days and times of the week. That is why I chose different times of the day, ranging from 10am-7pm. I also chose that time range because I believe that vastly different groups of society re active at different times of the day. For example, elders tend to wake up extremely early and go walk some miles at the mall as opposed to a younger crowd that typically go to school or work during the morning time and do their shopping at later times. I believe that by observing at various days and times of the week, I included a more representative sample of the population. Categories and Measurements I based my observations on gender, race, and age, because I believe these criteria highly influence the different looks, facial expressions, comments, manners among people towards me. I chose these three because they are easily determined viewed, and therefore more accurate to measure, although age and race were sometimes hard to determine. One other category I considered measuring was socio- economic status. Although I believe that this may be an important contributing factors to the topic, I decided against using it because I couldnt find a way to accurately determine how wealthy a person is based on a single observation. To determine age and race, I used obvious physical characteristics I could observe to classify a person, such as skin/eye/hair color, style, and language accent if any. For this topic, there wasnt a way to measure exact proximity. I only observed people that actually noticed me no farther than about 2 feet. Ill. Findings Altogether I made a total of 12 observations at different times over 5 separate days. After observing about 200 people that entered the various places inside the mall I observed, I found that more that almost every one of the persons I observed actually said hello smiled at me while I was alone. Less than half, looked at me with a confused face, did not smile, and commented something to the other person they ere with while I was with my 4 nieces and nephews. I found that the day or time didnt matter the huge difference I observed was the gender, age, and race of the people I observed. I found that 60% of males and only 40% females acknowledged me in a positive way, with a smile, opened the door for me while I was alone. The percentages were reversed when I was with my nieces and nephews, only 40% of males and 60% females acknowledged me in a negative way, didnt open the door, made comments or facial expressions towards me and the kids. Race During my research I chose to observe only whites and Atrican-Americans. I tound that 90% of all Whites and African-Americans acknowledged me positively while alone. While I was with the kids it changed drastically, 80% whites and 40% of all blacks acknowledged me in a negative way even when I smiled at each and every one of them. Age When it came down to age, it was a very broad type of positive and negative acknowledgment. Age ranges from 15-60 years old, overall I received positive acknowledgement while I was alone of more than 50% male, blacks from ages 15-60 years old and only about 10% showed negative acknowledgement towards me with the kids. Female, whites, between the ages of 15-45 years old over 40% acknowledged me in a positive way whole I was alone, while 70% acknowledged me an a negative way while I was with the kids. Also, I found that I received much more attention from everyone including cashiers from the various places I was in, when I was with the kids especially when they were not groomed. V. Discussion ; Implications Through my observations I found overall I had a more negative acknowledgement from Whites, females and males. A more positive acknowledgement from Black, males ; females. Also, according to my research elders are more likely to stereotype and cknowledge me negatively when I walk around with my nephews and nieces. While I was alone more than half actually acknowledged me while I was alone. Although gender, age, and race statistics are interesting, I see no real-world application for this information to this situation. As it all varies from the different places that you visit. As stated earlier I chose NorthPark because it would allow me to see a more diverse crowd. Proximity, on the other hand, seems to play a significant role, a man or female no matter the race is very likely to open the door for me while coming in through an ntrance with the kids, especially with a stroller. On the other hand, while I was alone males are more likely to open then the door then females. Solutions In reality there is no true solution that I can provide, that will allow me to be seen in a positive way with or without kids. The only thing I can suggest to my Hispanic, single ladies is to not worry about negative stereotypes or acknowledgements and overcome the bad stats, work hard towards career, not to get married at an early age, and work twice as hard as any other race. V. Conclusions Altogether, this paper exposed several previously unknown facts about the different ttitudes, positive ; negative acknowledgements that people in general have towards young, Hispanic women. What I found much interesting was the fact that I never imagined getting so many bad looks, with kids. I always believed Id be more respected in public when I was with kids, especially because I could blend in as a single mother. If I could I would raise a program to assist young Hispanic women to overcome all stereotypes as they are growing up. As I stated earlier there isnt a solution that I could recommend to avoid stereotypes. Only to work towards goals and dreams, and never give up!

Benefits of Training Employees in an Organization

Benefits of Training Employees in an Organization The aim of this paper is to identify all there is to know about training, the impact it has on both firms and employees and then, the reason why, although it is beneficial provision to business growth, still some organisations and individuals are not willing to accept the idea of investing in training and development. In order to come to that claim, it is necessary to mention first the cost-effectiveness of training and development, by which methods it can be reinsured, and the involvement of training in an organisations prosperity and even more, when it has to do with the integration in a international market. To begin properly, it should be noticed that training at any level and in whatever form this can take, could have only positive aspect. Considering that, training means investing in people to enable them perform better and to empower them to make the best use of their natural abilities (Armstrong, 1996; 2003). Through the practice of a range of activities, it is believed that learning is an important clue here, as a means for developing a high performance culture and achieving businesss competitive advantage (Pieper, 1990, Salaman, 1992, Tyson, 1996). This appear clearly from the below definitions of training. According to Heevy and Noon (2001), training is the process of changing the skills, attitudes, and knowledge of employees with the purpose of improving their level of competence. It is a planned process, usually involving a series of stages where incremental improvements can be identified. It takes two main focus 1) on the job training whereby an employee observing the tasks, being guided through them by experts, and then practising them. 2) Off the job training whereby an employee is instructed away from the place of work, either in a training room on the premises or at a separate location. This training is more often theory based and might even take the form of self learning packages (Heevy and Noon, 2001). Furthermore, as Manpower Services Commission defined training in 1981, it is the following: A planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behavior through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose, in the w ork situation, is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy the current and future manpower needs of the organization. Seeing the definition of the training from the perspective of education as Smith put it: Development refers to the growth of realization of a persons ability, through conscious or unconscious education, where education is activities which aim at developing the knowledge, skills, moral values and understanding required in all aspects of life, rather than a knowledge and skill relating to only a limited field of activity (Smith, 1992). Besides the definition of training, the mention of the potential benefits for both employees and firms and from which methods these are derived, is essential in order to understand why training is so important for the business (Lonr, 1990, Murray, 2007). It is worthwhile to point that it cannot be any development without the training procedure. As it has already been mentioned, training aims to develop employees competences and to improve their performance but also, to reduce the learning time needed for employees starting in a new job on appointment, transfer or promotion and to ensure that they will become fully competent as quickly and economically as possible (J. Swart et al, 2005). When a training programme being used effectively, then the benefits for employees are numerous and are illustrated on firms performance. It also helps to manage changes and provide to employees the knowledge and skills they need to adjust with new situations and work demands, as well as to adopt new t echnologies and methods, to be innovative (Armstrong, 2003). In that way, employees motivation is increased and the same goes to efficiencies in processes resulting in firms financial gain while employees turnover is being reduced. Highly trained workforce provides higher levels of service to customers which enhance companys image (Mullins, 2007). The cost-effectiveness of training is a vital element because it can help the line manager to establish credibility, to reveal the value of the training by achieving both operational savings and increases in firms revenue; then, enforce the organization to look training more as an investment and less as a dispensable cost of operation. By training their employees, companies maximize the potential of this investment (Campbell, 1995). In order to improve the skills of its human resource, an organization can either train its existing employees or recruit pre-skilled labor forces that have been trained elsewhere (Booth, 1998; Jameson, 2000). The importance of investment in training and development is matter of whether a firm is treating its employees as a resource or as a cost (Tysson, 1996; Long, 1990; Jackson, 1989; Jameson, 2000). By exploiting the meaning of each word that consists Human Resource Management; human implies the workforce, resource implies investment, management implies development (Sisson, 1989). It is demonstrated that the consideration of human asset as investment for the firm through strategic development can maximize its potential, and the training is the tool that can provide it. So, companies with unwillingness to consider employees as investment, can simply be called not HRM practicing. In adverse, companies reluctant to invest in their human resources, rely on a short-term human asset, which, mainly, is low skilled training, less loyalty to its work and easy replaceable due to the lower cost of loss for the firm (Harzing, 1995; Jameson, 2000; Mullins, 2007). Most managers recognize the vital role that continuous learning plays in todays marketplace in order to maximize companys competitive advantage (Harzing, 1995; Gordon, 1991). However, some managers are reluctant to invest in their employees and train them. The reasons why is happening are variable. The market from its own, in which each company is doing business, deduct any potential training (Booth, 1994; Graven, 1998). More specific, the market is divided to the primary labour market, where jobs tend to be supplied by large, highly profitable firms with high capital to labour ratio and high productivity. Here, production is usually large scale with high investment in technology with more opportunities for training. The secondary labour market includes small firms with low capital to labour ratio, low productivity and small scale production. In these firms, wage and skill levels tend to be low, employment is unstable and training opportunities are usually limited. Significantly, small businesses experience problems in providing training for both owner-managers and workers. (Curran et al., 1996) Reasons for not providing such training are that companies do not believe in the effectiveness of training and they do not consider it as a big component for a better performance. Hence, when profits are under pressure or other developments are on stake, the most common reaction is to cut training fund. Also, recruiting skilled labor is more economical than practicing training and development policies. But they neglect that teamwork, employees initiatives, people talents are all part of the financial model and when these figures are maximized the same goes with the business economic growth (Bentley, 1991; Campell, 1995) Traditional styles of management based on authoritarian, non-participatory tenets of employees and managers who have grown up in a system like this, is unlikely to be ready to abandon familiar tried and trusted methods and be welcomed to a better trained, self reliant and questioning human force (Sisson, 1989). Some of them claim that there is limited time for the practice of training program. Indeed, a training program to be effective needs a lot of both employers and employees time and commitment, it also may take all employees job-life to be efficient. Job conditions change constantly in the business environment, so the continuous learning is required but nobody has the state or the emotional strength to be in a training position all the time. In that point, there are two categories that can be distinguished (Armstrong, 2003; Murray, 2007; Currie, 1997). Employers that do not believe in the importance of the process and employees that do not find interest to be trained, specifically if they have obtained a high image in the firm and they are known for their distinctive qualifications. Contrary to that, some employees want to develop their skills and knowledge whereby they will contribute to their companys success (Keep, 1989). They want training but their managers do not want to be confronted by this task, they are unwillingness to try, and simply they avoid it. From the perspective of the length of a training program, which could take weeks, months or even the entire career of the employees it can be a major expense especially for firms with traditionally high turnover. Besides, the common belief that is the responsibility of the school system to train people to be workers and is the workers responsibility to learn how to do a job so they can get hired is another reason why employers not practice their manpower (Collin, 2003). Government regulations, insurance coverages, and common sense dictate relevant training that should be given to every employee. Still, few employers do not find it significant to train their human force (Collin, 2003; Noon, 2001). A discouragement of not training is, also, the gap that arises when trainees are transferred from the training course to a job, to apply their knowledge and skills in practice. As long as they are in a training centre, they are sheltered from the realities of the rough and tumble workplace. For managers and team leaders, the problem of transferring from learning situation to the real conditions may be even more difficult because most of management training tends to deal with relatively abstract concepts like motivation and leadership, and the connection between what is being learned in the class room and what is really happening in work, may not always be apparent. That is why the training must always be compatible to employees needs (Armstrong, 2003, Noon, 2001). Another reason of not practicing training can be regarded the difficulty in measuring the effectiveness of a training program. Measuring cost of training needs a lot of efforts from the senior manager because apart from training results are also other interacting variables such as administrative costs, relocation, course design and material costs that have to be taken into account. Therefore are different methods that can be used from the manager in order to derive an acceptable figure for the effectiveness of training course. Those methods vary from sector and companys size. Hence manager has to have the ability to choose the one, which fit to the business needs. Any failure to the accounting of training-cost can mislead to wrong results, to an ineffective training proposal and that will discourage the company to practice training (Murley, 2007; Belcour, 1995t; Gordon, 1991). Moreover, it can be said that firms are not invested in training because of the flexible working environment. They claim that investing in people can be a boomerang for their business competitive advantage, as it is likely employees will leave the company and transfer their knowledge into competitors firm. Despite the likelihood of this event, employers have to understand that the key for organizations success is the human factor. By investing in human asset training, they invest in employees commitment to the firm and more as the firm invests in the development of their skills (Armstrong, 2003; Craven 1994; Hall, 1991). It cannot be ignored the providence of the HRDF, a levy reimbursement scheme establishing in 1992. Under HRDF, employers pay a payroll contribution of one percent and are eligible to claim a portion of allowable training expenditures up to the limit of their total levy for any given year. The reimbursement rates vary by sector and type of training. Empirical analysis showed that firms least likely to claim from HRDF are small firms and firms providing no training or only informal training. Important factors that employers cite as inhibiting their training: the limited resources available for it, the use of mature technology with low skill requirements, the adequacy of skills provided by schools, and the availability of skilled workers who can be hired from other firms (Tan and Gill, 1998). Generally, levy schemes have led to an increase in quantity of training. In some countries levy schemes have had some impact on increasing training. A common feature of schemes in which training has increased has been the fact that an effective system is in place for administering the levy both for levy collection as well as administration of grants. On the other hand, there were very complicated rules governing training requirements for the levy and the criteria for approval, dissuade employers from investing in it (Edwards, 1997). Firms which may have otherwise invested more in training, tend to reduce their effort to the level required by law in order to receive the minimum rebate or tax credit. There is also some evidence which suggests that if firms are reluctant to train, they organize training which is not relevant to their needs in order to qualify for the rebate or tax credit. Additionally, smaller firms may be less likely to train their workers as they feel that costs are significant and the training which is provided may not be relevant to their needs. Even if training is provided, the bureaucracy involved in persuing reimbursements dissuades firms from submitting claims for reimbursements. (Herschbach, 1993). Concluding, this paper attempted to define the reasons why there are organizations that are reluctant to see their manpower as an important asset in business success and so invest on them and train them. Now, the interplay between the benefits that are derived from any form of training and the cost-effectiveness of training for the firms is seemed to be more clear. In general, companies which operate in the increasingly competitive international market were forced to attach training and development as equal to the vital acknowledgement that the training needs are more like an investment rather than a cost and that, partly due the cultural diversity that the international integration occurs and partly because of the rapid economic and technological growth. All these also reflect the companies outlook on how important is the quality of those they recruit, because a companys image is as good as is its personnel and it is vital to select and train the best. (Upton, 1987) Unfortunately, i n many cases this process is considered by many managers as meaningless, too time consuming, a bureaucratic exercise only, or even as something that intervene to their departments work. For some organizations, the maintenance and the wellbeing of the equipment and machinery seems more important than to make an effort to the wellbeing and development of their own employees (Sun, 2001). But as it has been already highlighted, the key for success, even profit, for any firm at any size is its human asset and to invest in them infer to business future (Hall, 1991, Armstrong, 2003).

The Problems of Doing Good :: Politics Political Essays

The Problems of Doing Good In 1938 Mao Zedong summarized one of the most important problems with warfare in Problems of War and Strategy: "War can only be abolished through war, and in order to get rid of the gun it is necessary to take up the gun." American intervention in Somalia began as a peacekeeping mission to ensure that food donated by goodwill organizations got into the hands of the civilians who were starving; since the theft of these donations by Somali soldiers was widely reported in the international press. As the conflict progressed, our presence shifted and evolved into nation-building. The United States was essentially living out Zedong's warning, and we were soundly criticized for it. Was the mission ethically justified? The only reasonable and logical conclusion that can be reached is that entering the conflict in Somalia was the product of very poor judgment. Before entering a conflict a nation should, at the least, stand to gain something if she wins. Everyone lost during the Somalia hostilities: statistically we did not save many Somali lives, we increased our notoriety throughout the world for getting involved in things that don't concern us, American soldiers died, and funds that could have been appropriated elsewhere were spent without concern for their investment. As if this weren't bad enough, it was clear from the start that the only reason we got involved was out of a sense of pity. Humanitarian support through military intervention is as much of a paradox as George Bush caring about a poor third-world nation. The action raises this ethical question: is the act of saving Somali lives worth the loss of American lives? Historically our armed forces have served only to protect the freedom of democracy and maintain national security. Humanitarianism falls into neither of those categories. The problem lies in the reality that the United States has no vested interest in the outcome of a civil war in Somalia. It does not affect us economically, politically, socially, it does not affect our allies, the integrity of trade agreements, and it had no bearing on national security or foreign policy. The truth is that conflict in Somalia should not have even made its way onto the Whitehouse agenda because it does not affect us at all. Equally important as the fact that American men and women died to bring food to Somalis, is the ethics from the standpoint of the Somalis.

The Second World War (II) :: Essays Papers

The Second World War (II) Wars are good business. They create an immediate demand for a wide variety of materials needed by the government in order to fight the war. They create work opportunities for people that might not ordinarily be considered part of the normal work force. And, while not necessarily good for the soldiers engaged in the fighting, wars are always good for the businesses that provide the materials used in a war. The Second World War was very good for business. The Second World War completed the process of "centralizing" the American economy. The Great Depression of 1929 and America's involvement in the war completed the change from small, locally run businesses to large, centralized control. Big business, big unions, and big government dominated the American economy by the end of the war. The federal government issued thousands of contracts to make war goods. The largest beneficiaries of the government's largesse were the existing large corporations. "The big got bigger," Norton tells us, and the government "guaranteed profits in the form of cost-plus-fixed fee contracts, generous tax write-offs, and exemption from antitrust prosecution." Large universities received research contracts. Farming came to be dominated by "large-scale mechanized companies and farm co-ops" rather than family farms. The war "accelerated" this trend because "wealthy institutions were better able†¦ to pay for expensive new machinery" (Norton 524 and 525). The huge government demand for increased production meant an increased demand for workers. Businesses wanted to hire any qualified worker willing to work. Unions wanted only union workers to work in jobs that had been union jobs. This disagreement eventually led to federal involvement in settling labor disputes. By 1943, labor was dominated by the centralized control of the unions, union membership climbing from 8.5 million in 1940 to over 14.7 million by 1943 (525). Along with its involvement in labor matters, the federal government also became involved in business activities. With the creation of the National War Labor Board in 1941 to settle labor disputes, and then the creation of the War Production Board in 1942 to convert the America economy to war production, the federal government had become a third partner in the centralizing of the American economy. With this increased participation came an increase in government policy and regulation. This led to an increased demand for federal workers to carry out these policies and by 1945 the size of the federal government had grown form 1.

Postpartum Hemorrhage Essay

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is a significantly life-threatening complication that can occur after both vaginal and caesarean births (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Simpson and Creehan (2008) define PPH as the amount of blood loss after vaginal birth, usually more than 500mL, or after a caesarean birth, normally more than 1000mL. However, the definition is arbitrary, attributed to the fact that loss of blood during birth is intuitive and widely inaccurate (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). In line with this, studies have suggested that health care providers consistently underestimate actual blood loss, thus, an objective definition of PPH would be any amount of bleeding that exposes a mother in hemodynamic jeopardy (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Currently, PPH is the leading cause of maternal mortality worldwide, and it is estimated that, over 150, 000 women, die of the complication annually (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Causes of Postpartum Hemorrhage Excessive bleeding can occur at any time between the separation of the placenta and its expulsion or removal, and in tandem to this, there are different facets that cause PPH (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). PPH can amount from uterine atony, failure of the uterus to contract and retract after birth (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Uterine atony is the most common cause of PPH, accounting for 70% of cases (Sheiner, 2011), and it is usually delineated by a marked hypotonia of the uterus (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). In addition, uterine atony is likely to occur when the uterus is over distended, depicted through polyhydramnios, multiple gestations, and macrosomia (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). Other factors that induce uterine atony encompass; traumatic birth, halogenated anaesthesia, lengthened labour, induction or augmentation of labour, intraamniotic infection, tocolytics, and multiparity (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). Sheiner (2011) also affirms that trauma is a significant cause of PPH, and it is typically associated with vaginal or birth canal lacerations and uterine rupture. Vaginal delivery can amount to varying asperity of vaginal, perineum-region between the genital organs and anus-, and cervix lacerations (Sheiner, 2011). Similarly, lacerations secondary to birth trauma may occur more frequently with operative vaginal birth, through the aid of forceps or vacuum (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). The lesions can lead to a concealed retroperitoneal or suprafascial hematomas, which inevitably leads to significant but unnoticed blood loss (Sheiner, 2011). On the other hand, uterine rapture is also a form of birth trauma that can effectively amount to life-threatening PPH, as well, it is a rare obstetrical complication, with incidence of approximately 0. 6 -0. 7 % in cases of a trial of vaginal birth after caesarean section (Sheiner, 2011). Uterine rupture can become symptomatic during the postpartum period manifesting as abdominal tenderness and maternal hemodynamic collapse (Sheiner, 2011). Another cause of PPH is retained placenta, which is primarily associated with a mean duration of the third stage of labour (8-9 minutes), and Sheiner (2011) attests that longer intervals of the third stage of labour, poses as a great risk of PPH, with double the rate after ten minutes. Further, retained placental parts interpose and interfere with uterine contractions and may either cause early or late PPH (Sheiner, 2011). In conjunction to this, coagulation disorder is also a cause of PPH. It is a rare disorder that accounts only for one percent of cases (Sheiner, 2011). Other causes of PPH include; episiotomy, uterine inversion and hematomas of the vulva, which are also associated with muscle tones, tissues, stress and thrombosis (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Clinical Presentation and Risk Factors PPH may be divided into two presentations; early PPH, which normally occurs before 24 hours, and late PPH, which usually takes place between 24 hours and six weeks (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Moreover, symptoms of PPH vary according to the quantity and the rate of blood loss, as well as the general condition of the mother (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). The sign and symptoms of PPH include; the apparent excessive bleeding, hematocrit-reduction of the number of red blood cells, reduced blood pressure, development of symptoms of shock and anaemia, and severe pain and swelling of tissues and muscles of the vagina, vulva, pelvic and perineum (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). Besides, Ricci & Kyle (2009) avow that there are different factors that place a mother at risk for PPH, and they comprise; prolonged first, second or third stage of labour, previous history of PPH, foetal macrosomia, uterine infection, arrest of descent and multiple gestation. Other risk factors may include; mediolateral episiotomy, coagulation abnormalities, maternal hypertension, maternal exhaustion, malnutrition or anaemia, preeclampsia, precipitous birth, polyhydramnios and previous placenta previa (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Diagnosis and Assessment The principal mode of diagnosis is a differential diagnosis, and it includes a plethora of facets; bleeding from implantation site, which may be due to uterine atony, with predisposing factors such as infections, and retained placenta or abnormal placentation (Sheiner, 2011). Coagulation disorders and trauma are also essential facets considered during diagnosis (Sheiner, 2011). Conventionally, there are different methods used for the estimation of blood loss during diagnosis, and they are majorly classified as clinical and quantitative methods (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Clinical method remains the primary means to diagnose the magnitude of bleeding and to direct interventional therapy in obstetric practice (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). On the other hand, quantitative diagnosis entails visual assessment, which is relatively, cheap, straightforward and a standard method of observation used for measurement of blood loss (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). However, the method has a lot of inaccuracy and variation from one care-giver to another, and this is usually corrected through correlations of results obtained with clinical signs (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). In light with this, assessment is also remarkably essential, and medical history available in the prenatal record can be assessed for previous bleeding disorders in order to assist the nurse in identification of risk factors for obstetrical precursors to hemorrhage (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). Further, assessment of the woman who is bleeding begins with careful evaluation of the quantity and colour of blood loss (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). Bright red vaginal bleeding suggests active bleeding, and dark brown blood may indicate past blood loss (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). Moreover, character of the uterine activity, presence of abdominal pain, stability of maternal signs, and foetal status, also constitute the critical processes of evaluation (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). Treatment and Management Simpson and Creehan (2008) attest that the key goals of treatment and management of PPH embraces the need for stopping hemorrhage, correction of hypovolemia and homeostasis, identification of risk factors, and eventually treatment of hemorrhage and the underlying causes. Recognition of PPH requires immediate action that combines diagnostic measures with established maternal resuscitation efforts (Sheiner, 2011). Effective and successful treatment also necessitates an interdisciplinary team approach that is indispensible for life saving (Sheiner, 2011). Therapeutic management is one of the central treatment methods used in offering remedy to PPH (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). It involves and focuses on the underlying causes of the hemorrhage (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). In cases where uterine atony is the causative factor, the first step of treatment of PPH involves the evaluation of the uterus to determine if it is firmly contracted (Simpson & Creehan, 2008), thereafter, there is the incorporate uterine massage, and the use of uterotonic drugs such as oxytocin, ergot alkaloids and prostaglandins (Sheiner, 2011; Simpson & Creehan, 2008). When retained placental fragments are the cause, the fragments are separated and removed manually, and then a uterine stimulant is given to promote the uterus to expel fragments (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Similarly, antibiotics are always administered to prevent infections and lacerations are sutured or repaired to prevent excessive bleeding (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). In addition, there is the use of desmopressin drug, a synthetic form of vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) in reducing PPH (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). The drug stimulates the release of the stored factor VIII and von Willebrand factor from the lining of the blood vessels, which in turn increases platelet adhesiveness and shortens bleeding time (Ricci & Kyle, 2009). Other forms of medical management involve uterine packing, ligation of blood vessels-uterine, ovarian, and hypogastric arteries-, arterial embolization and bimanual compression (Simpson & Creehan, 2008). Conclusion Concisely, postpartum hemorrhage describes a mother or a woman who is experiencing or is on the verge of experiencing acute blood loss. As stated, the condition is the leading cause of maternal mortality worldwide attributed to its detrimental complication. Nevertheless, with the introduction of the various diagnoses, assessment, treatment and management methods, the condition can be corrected and loss of lives prevented. It is also advisable that individuals should be conversant with this condition, and visits to the clinics should be more frequent for pregnant women, so as to arrest and prevent such complications. ?